Editor’s Note

Dear Fellow Space Elevator Enthusiast,

I read an interesting article by science fiction author Gareth L. Powell. It’s called “Sci Fi Eye: Thinking big--Dyson spheres and ringworlds”. It was published in The Engineer, an online site for engineering professionals.

https://www.theengineer.co.uk/sci-fi-eye-thinking-big-dyson-spheres-and-ringworlds/

In his article, Mr. Powell tells the reader that space elevators are “theoretically possible, but about which we can currently only dream.” We like dreamers; dreamers got us to where we are now, but we have moved past the dream stage and into the planning stage.

In the words of ISEC president Pete Swan, “ISEC has moved from ‘we imagine this’ to ‘we envision this.’”

We hope that you will join us in our vision to move past the dream of building a space elevator into a new age of space travel where cargo and personnel are gently lifted into space using ecologically friendly solar space power!

Sandee Schaeffer
Newsletter Editor

President's Corner

by Pete Swan

Modern Day Space Elevator Baseline Concept

Space Elevators are a Mega-Project which will develop over the next 15 years. At the present time we are in the 8th distinctive description of a systems architecture as described by David Raitt, Ph.D. and chief historian of ISEC [i]. This explanation defines a permanent space infrastructure that essentially defeats gravity and enables so many future dreams and missions that are extremely difficult or impossible today. This transformational infrastructure is a transportation system that enables massive movement of cargo and people to GEO and beyond inexpensively, safely and is environmentally safe. Bent Flyvbjerg explains megaprojects as:

“Megaprojects are large-scale, complex ventures that typically cost $1 billion or more, take many years to develop and build, involve multiple public and private stakeholders, are transformational, and impact millions of people.” [ii]

In addition, megaproject leadership is unique and requires a vision that reaches into the future. Recently, the “three secrets of Megaproject success” were described as needing Clear Strategic Vision, total Alignment of leadership and must be able to adapt to complexity [iii]. Space Elevator developmental teams have agreed upon the following vision for the mega-project:

“Space Elevators are the Green Road to Space while they enable humanity's most important missions by moving massive tonnage to GEO and beyond. This is accomplished safely, routinely, inexpensively, daily, and they are environmentally neutral.” [iv]

The promise of this vision leads to massive delivery of cargo to GEO and beyond and enables so many projects which have been promised but seemed impossible with the demand for 20,000,000 tonnes (S-E L-1 Sunshades), 10,000,000 tonnes (E-M L-5 Settlement), 3,000,000 tonnes (Space Solar Power) or even 1,000,000 tonnes (Mars Settlement). The reality of the huge dreamers requires massive support in tonnes delivered to GEO and beyond in a timely manner–precisely the strength of a permanent space access infrastructure called the Space Elevator.

For the leadership team to be completely aligned once the vision has been established, the team must develop a conceptual baseline, or what I call a “Top Level Baseline Concept.” This step is essential in the long process of kicking off a project as it provides a fixed point of reference that is used for comparison purposes. This paper is to define this Space Elevator Baseline Concept as established over the last 14 years by the International Space Elevator Consortium and its partners around the world.

Over the last 12 ISEC study reports, two IAA 4-year studies, and hundreds of papers/presentations and discussions, the ISEC Space Elevator Baseline has emerged. The 2019 study entitled “Today’s Space Elevator” reflects well the layout of the modern-day Space Elevator with a defined baseline. The image of a Galactic Harbour portrays the concept while the following lays it out straight forwardly. The purpose of the following description is indeed to establish a “fixed point of reference that is used for comparison purposes.” At this point in the development, the Transportation Baseline [v] for a Galactic Harbour is:

  • One Earth Port (a Floating Operations Platform and two Tether Termini)

  • One GEO Region enabling multiple mission satellites to operate safely

  • One Apex Region with an Apex Anchor at the end of each tether

  • One Headquarters and Primary Operations Center (a major portion of which resides at the Earth Port FOP)

  • Two tethers

  • Operating Tether Climbers (estimates of seven per tether simultaneously)

In addition to the major segments of Space Elevators, there are tremendously important parallel activities that must be continued to ensure megaproject maturation. They are:

  1. Tether Material: From the very beginning, one of the significant questions has been tether segment design with an appropriate material that will be long enough and strong enough. Early in the development of this megaproject, the estimated requirements were established as: strength of greater than 100 GPa (with approaches that might accept significantly less than that), lengths of 100,000 km with a design similar to one meter wide and millimeters thick, and extremely durable in the space void. As the design has moved into the 8th Architecture, recognition of new materials (2D such as single crystal graphene and others) have become the obvious choice as it is strong enough and can be manufactured at a rapid pace into a continuous length long enough for Space Elevators. A recent quotation expresses where single crystal graphene is today: “Sheet Graphene is now being produced in industrial quantities and has reached the point where we can seriously consider the manufacture of tether quality sheet graphene within the decade” [vi]. This is an ongoing research arena that is active and very promising. There is much to do as the mega project must transition from research material to production of massive lengths and thicknesses.

  2. The first 100 kms (40?) will require special arrangements to ensure safe passage through the atmosphere. There are many concepts that have been judged reasonable and are being pursued. One of the first initiatives once the funding starts to flow, will be the investigation of the best approach to successfully manage issues from our atmosphere.

  3. The modern-day Space Elevator uses external power to raise from the top of the atmosphere to the GEO Region and then adjust for the opposite forces beyond GEO to reach the Apex Anchor. Solar arrays collecting energy is the baseline concept at this time with many other options being considered.

To fully understand the ISEC Baseline Concept, one must recognize several aspects of a completed Galactic Harbour as a part of a global (solar system wide) transportation infrastructure. The following major thoughts are baseline supporting concepts that are driving the design of a Baseline Concept:

  • The Galactic Harbour is the unification of Transportation and Enterprise [vii]. As payloads start to move throughout space elevator systems, a core construction priority will drive businesses that will then lead to expansion beyond traditional functions. One projection is that the GEO Region will entice the construction of large enterprises to support non-traditional space businesses.

  • “Infrastructure, at its core, provides value through the reduction of transaction costs. Therefore, trying to close a business case for infrastructure by charging high transaction costs is a doomed venture. However, expanding the picture to view the impact on the economy from increased access to value and more efficient markets through lower transaction costs and infrastructure becomes a very lucrative, stable, and reliable investment. Cost per kilogram is the language of rockets--strategic investment, ubiquitous access, and uninterrupted exchange of resources are the staples of Space Elevators” [viii].

  • Expanding space access architectures to include Space Elevators will enable a robust movement off-planet. The essence of this concept is that the two methods of achieving spaceflight are complementary and compatible rather than competitive. During the discussions, we reached across the strengths of rocket launches along with their difficulties. We recognize there are three principal strengths: 1) rockets are successful today and great strides are forecast for the future, 2) reaching any orbit can be achieved, and 3) rapid movement through radiation belts for people enables flights to the Moon and Mars. The strengths of a permanent space transportation infrastructure with daily, routine, environmentally friendly and inexpensive attributes come with Space Elevators.

  • The basic capacity of six space elevators at Initial Operational Capability is roughly 30,000 tonnes per year – of course this compares to the total moved to orbit by humans so far of only 26,000 tonnes (rough estimate). Then, when developed into the full operations capability (six space elevators with human capacity) the yearly deliverables reach 170,000 tonnes to GEO and beyond per year. This capacity enables transformational missions such as Space Solar Power and Mars/Lunar logistics.

References:

i. Raitt, David (2021). Space Elevator Architectures. Quest: The History of Spaceflight, v38, n1, 2021, pp17-26

ii. Flyvbjerg, Bent (2017). The Oxford Handbook of Megaproject Management. Oxford University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0198732242.

iii. Shenhar, A. & Holzmann, V. (2017). The Three Secrets of Megaproject Success: Clear Strategic Vision, Total Alignment, and Adapting to Complexity. Project Management Journal, 48(6), 29–46.

iv. Swan, Peter (2021) New Space Elevator Vision and Strategy, LinkedIn article, Nov 20, 2021.

v. Swan, Peter, Michael Fitzgerald, Today’s Space Elevator, ISEC Study Report, Nov 2019. www.isec.org

vi. Nixon, A., Whieldon, R. and Nelson, D.k 2021. Graphene: Manufacturing, Applications and Economic Impact. 1st Ed. Manchester: Publishing, pp. 21-26.

vii. Fitzgerald, Michael, “Galactic Harbour, a Strategic Vision Emerges,” Presentation at the National Space Society Conference, St. Louis, May 2017.

viii. Barry, Kevin and Eduardo Pineda Alfaro, “Changing the Economic Paradigm for Building a Space Elevator” 72nd International Astronautical Congress (IAC), Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 25-29 October 2021.

March Webinar

Larry Bartoszek, mechanical engineer, will discuss the space elevator climber, from basic principles to detailed design. Larry is part of the current ISEC study on the climber/tether interface and has developed a reference climber design using state of the art components. He will cover the current design status, the challenges and the possibility of using near-future technologies.

Saturday, March 12th, 4 PM GMT, 8 AM US Pacific Time, 11 AM US Eastern Time

The webinar is free, but you will need to sign up. Details will appear at:

https://www.isec.org/events

and on LinkedIn as we near the date of the webinar.

Tether Materials

by Adrian Nixon

Carbon nanotubes and Graphene

You will recall that NASA calculated that the material for the tether needs to have a tensile strength of at least 62 GPa [1]. There are very few materials that have the required strength. Dear reader, you are part of an informed audience and you will know that there are two classes of materials that are tether candidates: two dimensional (2D) materials and nanotubes.

I was asked recently:

“Why are you so focussed on graphene, what about carbon nanotubes?”

Part of my answer was I am open to considering both materials, it is just that so much more research and development and industrial activity is taking place with graphene and 2D materials that it may appear that I have overlooked carbon nanotubes. I hope I have not. However, it is time to check in on progress with both materials.

Material description

First, a quick recap about graphene and carbon nanotubes. They are allotropes, both are made from the same material–carbon. The atoms are structured in slightly different ways. Graphene is a flat sheet and carbon nanotubes are the same flat sheet rolled up into a seamless tube, hence the nanotube name.

Carbon nanotubes can extend by growing from either end of the tube. This represents just one axis for growth. Graphene can extend by growing from the sides of the sheet and has two axes available for growth. Adding carbon atoms to either material in extra dimensions would change the structure. This is why carbon nanotubes are described as a one-dimensional (1D) material and graphene a two dimensional (2D) material.

Understanding the nature of growth of these materials is vital to understanding the construction of the tether. To take advantage of their strength, the tether must be made from continuous lengths of material. This means each nanotube or flat sheet of graphene is a continuous, defect free molecule stretching from the surface of the Earth all the way up into Space.

This presents challenges that are encountered nowhere else. To think about the details can be overwhelming. So, for the purposes of this article let us concentrate on two aspects of manufacturing: length and speed.

Manufactured Length

The longest single molecule carbon nanotube that has been made so far is 0.5m in 2013 [2]. Since 2013, no further improvements in length have been reported. The state of the art of carbon nanotube manufacture seems to be to make nanotube forests with a length of 0.14m and probably polycrystalline [3].

Graphene has been made as a single crystal (a single molecule) 0.5m long in 2017 [4]. Since then, industrial scale manufacturing of polycrystalline graphene has been reported at lengths of one kilometre [5].

Speed of Manufacture

Making material at scale and speed is vital to the successful deployment of the tether. Speeds of metres per second will be required to manufacture the tether in a reasonable timescale.

The latest information available on the average speed of manufacture of carbon nanotubes is that one metre can be made every 278 hours [3].

Graphene can be made on copper foil at speeds of 2 metres every minute [5].

Summary

To make the material for the space elevator tether requires manufacturing on very large scales and speeds. Carbon nanotubes can be made at sub-metre lengths, very slowly. If a nanotube could be made a metre long, it would take 11 days. Graphene on the other hand can already be made at lengths of one kilometre and a speed of 2 metres per minute. Neither material can be made at tether quality yet, however the trajectory clearly favours graphene as the industrial material of choice.

References:

1. Anon, 2022. Audacious & Outrageous: Space Elevators | Science Mission Directorate. [online] Science.nasa.gov. Available at: <https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2000/ast07sep_1> [Accessed 1 March 2022].

2. Zhang, R., Zhang, Y., Zhang, Q., Xie, H., Qian, W. and Wei, F., 2013. Growth of Half-Meter Long Carbon Nanotubes Based on Schulz–Flory Distribution. ACS Nano, 7(7), pp.6156-6161.

3. Sugime, H., Sato, T., Nakagawa, R., Hayashi, T., Inoue, Y. and Noda, S., 2021. Ultra-long carbon nanotube forest via in situ supplements of iron and aluminum vapor sources. Carbon, 172, pp.772-780.

4. Xu, X., Zhang, Z., Dong, J., Yi, D., Niu, J., Wu, M., Lin, L., Yin, R., Li, M., Zhou, J., Wang, S., Sun, J., Duan, X., Gao, P., Jiang, Y., Wu, X., Peng, H., Ruoff, R., Liu, Z., Yu, D., Wang, E., Ding, F. and Liu, K., 2017. Ultrafast epitaxial growth of metre-sized single-crystal graphene on industrial Cu foil. Science Bulletin, 62(15), pp.1074-1080.

5. Charmgraphene.com. 2021. Graphene on Cu foil. [online] Available at: <http://charmgraphene.com/bbs/board.php?bo_t able=e_gp01_film&wr_id=1> [Accessed 22 July 2021].

Space Elevator Conference

ISEC 2022 Virtual Conference
19th and 20th of August

Theme: Space Elevators, the Transformational Permanent Space Infrastructure

Sub-themes: Tether/Climber Interface and Dual Space Access Architecture

The ISEC 2022 Conference will be virtual with proposed dates of: 19/20 August 2022 (times tbd). We look forward to gathering again after three years. We have missed the camaraderie, innovative ideas, updates on progress, and the momentum building characteristics of our conferences. This year we are forced to go virtual to ensure we do not miss another year of “getting together and sharing.” Please plan on supporting this conference! The theme of the conference will reflect the magnitude of the venture with two sub-themes carrying on the tradition of supporting ongoing ISEC studies and those just starting.

ISEC 2022 Conference Key Dates 

Abstracts Deadline: 24-Apr-2022

Draft Papers Deadline: 15-May-2022

Paper Approvals: 12-Jun-2022

The tie to paper submissions: https://cmt3.research.microsoft.com/ISEC2022/

Registration information is forthcoming

For ISEC Members Only:

Is there a question about space elevators you've always wanted to ask? Like,

How do they work - really?

Why are you doing things that way? 

What are your plans for space elevators?

How much does it cost?

Now is the time to get answers. On April 30th we'll have a webinar in which your questions will be answered. Webinar registration details will be sent out soon.

Between now and April 15th you can submit your questions to membership@isec.org.

A panel of ISEC experts will choose among your questions and answer them in a 1.5 hour webinar. All space elevator related topics are on the table. One thing, though: you must be an ISEC member to submit a question and attend the webinar.

To become a member, go to https://www.isec.org/membership

History Corner

by David Raitt, PhD
ISEC Chief Historian

Subject Coverage of Space Elevator Sessions at the IAC

A couple of columns ago, [editor’s note: December 2021/January 2022 issue] I gave an overview of the very first space elevator sessions at the 2004 International Astronautical Congress (IAC) in Vancouver, Canada--though there had been the occasional paper on space elevators presented at previous IACs. For this month’s History Corner, I thought I’d take a look at the various papers presented over the years in all the sessions specifically devoted to space elevators at the IACs since 2004 and ascertain what themes there were. In some of the early years, there were two or more sessions plus often a poster session, and there were usually fewer sessions and papers in places that were somewhat more difficult to attend to for whatever reason. First an overview of the 18 locations and sessions to date with the number of papers presented in each:

  • In 2004 (Vancouver, Canada) there were two sessions: Space Elevator Ribbons and Tethers in Space (10 papers); and Space Elevators: Systems Architecture and Technology Development (10 papers); and a Poster Session on Space Elevators and Advanced Tethers (7 papers).

  • In 2005 (Fukuoka, Japan) there were also two sessions: Space Elevator System and its Environment (7 papers); and Space Elevators and Advanced Tethers: Applications and Impacts (10 papers); and a Poster Session on The Far Future: Renewed Visions (3 papers).

  • In 2006 (Valencia, Spain) there were two sessions: Space Elevator Systems, Engineering and Science (9 papers); and Space Elevators and Advanced Tethers: Programs and Applications (9 papers).

  • In 2007 (Hyderabad, India) there was a single session: Space Elevator System and Applications (7 papers).

  • In 2008 (Glasgow, Scotland) there were again two sessions: Space Elevator System Infrastructures (9 papers); and Space Elevators and Advanced Concepts (10 papers).

  • In 2009 (Daejeon, Republic of Korea) there was again a single session: Space Elevators and Tethers (10 papers).

  • In 2010 (Prague, Czech Republic) there were two sessions: Access to Space in the Far Future (8 papers); and Space Elevators and Tethers (10 papers).

  • In 2011 (Cape Town, South Africa) there was one session: Space Elevators and Tethers (9 papers).

  • In 2012 (Naples, Italy) there was again only one session: Space Elevator Feasibility and Technology (13 papers).

  • In 2013 (Beijing, China) there was one session: Space Elevator Design and Impact (13 papers).

  • In 2014 (Toronto, Canada) there was only one session: Global Strategy for Space Elevators (13 papers).

  • In 2015 (Jerusalem, Israel) again there was a single session: Space Elevator Tether and Space and Space Mineral Resources (14 papers - but only a couple of them actually addressed space elevators).

  • In 2016 (Guadalajara, Mexico) there was one full session: Space Elevator and Tethers (15 papers); and an Interactive Session (1 paper).

  • In 2017 (Adelaide, Australia) there was one full session: Conceptualizing Space Elevators and Tethered Satellites (16 papers).

  • In 2018 (Bremen, Germany) there was one bumper session: Conceptualizing Space Elevators and Tethered Satellites (18 papers); and an Interactive Session with a couple of papers on the space elevator.

  • In 2019 (Washington D.C., USA) there was again one large session: Space Elevator Critical Technology Verification and Validation (18 papers).

  • In 2020 (CyberSpace) there was one online session: Entering the Space Elevator Era (9 papers).

  • In 2021 (Dubai United Aran Emirates) there was one session: Space Elevator as Transportation Infrastructure to Access Space (10 papers); and an Interactive Session with one relevant paper.

The majority of papers presented in the sessions had more than one author--often two or three, but in the case of Japanese, Chinese, and Russian papers in particular, often over five. But it goes without saying, of course, that usually only the lead author actually attended the Congress to make the presentation. There were a total of 26 different countries represented in the authorship of papers in the sessions which indicates the interest around the world in the space elevator--with the United States and Japan probably providing the most contributions.

I have attempted to classify the papers into a rough and ready number of broad themes--though, of course, most papers often covered more than one theme. And it is interesting to note that not all papers presented fitted in neatly with the overall session title--some not even seeming to belong there at all, particularly in the cases of asteroid mining and using tethers to capture or displace asteroids. Of course, a number of session titles did actually specifically include the word tethers, but papers within those sessions often simply discussed tethered satellites for instance. Accordingly, presentations that did not actually mention a space elevator in their titles or abstracts, I have discarded from my analysis.

As perhaps might be expected by far the highest number of papers (38) related to the dynamics of the space elevator tether--here are included aspects such as elasticity, vibration, oscillation and stability. Next, we have 19 papers about the climbers, including their driving mechanisms, closely followed by presentations covering the concept, architecture, design, and construction of space elevators (18 papers).

To these could probably be added the 6 papers which had the concept and research into multistage elevators as their subject, and perhaps too the 4 presentations discussing partial elevators. In a separate category I included 5 papers explaining why a space elevator was needed and looking at the feasibility.

There were 15 papers discussing tethers in general and 14 papers concerning various space effects on the tether such as magnetospheric, radiation and thermal. Another 14 papers discussed topics like systems engineering, technology development, critical technologies, and technology readiness levels of space elevators. Tethered satellites accounted for 11 papers, as did some aspects of tethers relating to asteroids. Also tallying 11 were presentations giving the status of the space elevator. And when the focus, at least today, is on getting an Earth-based space elevator up and running first, it is interesting to see that there were also 10 presentations pertaining to lunar space elevators. There were also 5 papers discussing Mars space elevators, another 4 covered elevators for interplanetary destinations in general, and also 4 looking at the possibility of using the space elevator for access to Low Earth Orbit. In addition, 4 papers tackled the concept of manned space elevators.

There were then lower numbered clusters of papers: 9 discussing space debris - both as a risk to the space elevator, and by using the space elevator to get rid of it. Also, 9 papers covering the various space elevator nodes such as the Earth port, marine node, and apex anchor. To these could be added the 5 papers discussing the more recent concept of the galactic harbour and operations. Although tethers cropped up in many papers, there were 8 which specifically mentioned tether deployment and another 8 which covered tether failure, breakage, distortion, and risk. There were also 8 papers which discussed space elevator competitions and challenges and their associated power beaming and tether experiments. While a good number of the papers on tethers will have noted the material required, there were only 7 which actually focused on materials, especially carbon nanotubes.

A small batch of papers (7) over the years considered the possible benefits and applications of space elevators, particularly with regard to nuclear waste disposal and launch of space-based solar power systems, and the environmental impact coupled with dual access to space--a combination of elevators and rockets. The economics of space elevators were dealt with in 3 presentations, while in the category labelled miscellaneous, I included among the 10 papers the subjects of law, education and outreach, the formation of ISEC, international cooperation and space elevator history.

While a large number of the same attendees at the sessions came to many different IACs, it is noteworthy that though some speakers tried to vary the subjects of their papers presented over the years, others concentrated on the same topic at successive sessions, giving almost the same paper. And it has been interesting to go back over the older papers and note those who dropped out as authors after a few years. Did they lose interest in the space elevator and move on to other work, did they retire, did their organizations no longer permit them to travel to the IAC? Whatever the reason, space elevator research and discussion has been made more widely known, accessible, and useful because of their contributions both orally and in print.

For those wishing to look more closely into the various sessions to see who from where presented what and read the abstracts of their papers, then the information is freely available at https://iafastro.directory/iac/archive/. It should be noted that in 2004, the Symposium under which the space elevator sessions fell was entitled “IAA.3.8. Symposium on the Far Future: Renewed Visions” and the abstracts have to be downloaded as PDFs. For all other years, the Symposium was D4: The Far Future: Renewed Visions (later changed to D4 Symposium on Visions and Strategies for Far Futures) and the abstracts are immediately accessible when the paper title is clicked on.

Upcoming Events

March Webinar

Sponsored by the International Space Elevator Consortium
https://www.isec.org/events
Saturday, March 12th, 2022, 4PM UTC

Larry Bartoszek, mechanical engineer, will discuss the space elevator climber, from basic principles to detailed design. 

April Webinar

Sponsored by the International Space Elevator Consortium
Saturday, April 30th, 2022
Members Only Webinar Answering your questions about the Space Elevator. See above article for details

International Space Development Conference (ISDC)

Sponsored by the National Space Society (NSS)
http://isdc2022.nss.org/
Friday, May 27th through Sunday, May 29th, 2022
Location: Hyatt Regency Crystal City
Arlington, VA

The ISDC is the annual conference of the National Space Society bringing together NSS leaders and members with leading managers, engineers, scientists, educators, and businessmen from civilian, military, commercial, entrepreneurial, and grassroots advocacy space sectors. Information about sponsorships, exhibiting, and volunteering is available at each year’s ISDC website. As in recent years, ISEC will host a ‘Space Elevator Track’ within ISDC2022, Friday 2-5 pm.

Track Title: “Permanent Infrastructure – Space Elevators As A Transformational Capability” 

Top Level: Explain Transformational in the Sense of Enabling Missions and Changing the Way We Do Space Access, Centered On Our Three Study Reports:

  • Green Road to Space

  • Interplanetary

  • And the newest study: Dual Space Access Architecture

Study Explanation Level: Current Climber-Tether Interface and other topics as appropriate

Virtual Space Elevator Conference

Sponsored by the International Space Elevator Consortium
https://www.isec.org/events
Topics: Transformational Permanent Space Infrastructure; Tether/Climber interface & Dual Space Access Architecture
Friday, August19th through Saturday, August 20th, 2022
Registration: TBD

73rd International Astronautical Congress

Sponsored by the International Astronautical Federation (IAF)
https://www.iafastro.org/events/iac/iac-2022/
Sunday, September 18th through Thursday, September 22nd, 2022
Paris, France

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